Information on Cloves Market Trends

At least until the early 1960s, trade in cloves was carried out in the traditional, familiar manner, by large numbers of shipping agents, merchants, dealers and brokers. Since the political changes in Zanzibar in 1964, however, the situation has changed somewhat. The role of merchants and dealers has diminished primarily because the supply prices were more rigidly fixed after the Zanzibar upheaval than had previously been the case, and the general feeling in the trade was that little or no further profit could be made.

Not much is known about the structure of Madagascar’s export trade, but it seems to have been more centralized than was the case in pre-revolution Zanzibar, and in any case the price of cloves from Madagascar had always tended to follow that of Zanzibar cloves, a situation which continued to apply after 1964.

At present the main intermediary between producer or shipper and user is the broker or agent who works on a commission basis, charging maybe 1 -12 per cent for his services. There are still some dealers who buy and sell on a speculative basis, but they are now relatively uncommon in the clove trade.

At the same time the Zanzibaris, realizing that they were in a sellers’ market, introduced a heavy special duty on cloves, and the net resultant effect on the price was inevitable. Of the existence of severe shortages there can he no doubt. As Tables 5.11 and 5.12 show, sales from Zanzibar between 1965 and 1970 exceeded production during the same period, the difference being accounted for by the depletion of Zanzibar’s stockpile which in 1971 stood at around 5 000 tonnes.

In spite of this apparent historical decline in domestic usage, substantial quantities of cloves are still bought from supermarkets, grocers and market stalls for use in such traditional applications as apple dishes, and baked hams. Whole cloves are still widely used in all areas, but in the advanced Western nations there is evidence of an increasing preference for ground cloves. Normally the product is sold in cardboard or plastic drums of 21 g or 28 g capacity. The retail price in 1974 varied between 0.10 and 0.16 per 28 g package, compared with 0.04 six years previously, and the circumstances of this price rise have already been discussed. Per capita consumption of cloves in this form is continuing to decrease before the advance of ready-prepared foodstuffs, which contain a much lower proportion of the clove spice.

A new trade agreement was supposed to have been drawn up between Indonesia and Zanzibar in 1973, and although no details of the agreement are available, it is clear that virtually no cloves were exported from Zanzibar while these negotiations were in progress, as a result of which dealers and end-users are now looking more than ever to Madagascar, rather than Zanzibar, as the world’s most reliable source of cloves. The apparent decline in Zanzibar’s clove production potential has, of course, already been referred to.

National Dahlia Society

As well as the National Dahlia Society, which caters for both amateur and professional growers alike, there is a trade organisation known as the British Dahlia Growers Association.

Modern varieties, without doubt, are really wonderful, both in formation and in the period and length of blooming. The majority of giant varieties have originated overseas, although we have several raisers of these varieties within the confines of the British Isles, notably that doyen of the dahlia, Mr Harry Stredwick, whose giants are famous the world over.

Australia and America in particular have produced some really wonderful varieties which are to be seen in every keen grower’s garden. The medium and small varieties, up to a few years ago, were, in the main, of native origin, but of late years we have seen a gradual influx of varieties from other countries. Holland, in particular, is responsible for a really wonderful range of medium cactus which have literally revolutionised this very attractive section. But France, Germany, South Africa, Australia and the Iron Curtain countries, plus a whole host of other nations, have all sent varieties which are grown enthusiastically, so that it is perhaps invidious to even imply that any country excels in this particular phase.

Scotland also has its own society. This society, the Scottish National Chrysanthemum and Dahlia Society, organises at least one big show each year, usually at the Kelvin Hall in Glasgow, and also issues a classified list of varieties. This in the main is similar to that of the National Society but omits many varieties in the major list, adding a number of others of Scottish origin.

There is a great deal to he said in favour of this change because the smaller bloomed varieties are most attractive in the garden. They bloom early, have a very wide range of colour and are extremely free flowering. They are ideal in fact for the small garden where each plant has to play such a large part in the colour scheme. Then too they are ideal for use as cut flowers for house decoration, lasting quite well in water and supplying a constant stream of replacements.

The National Dahlia Society presents a Gold Medal to the outstanding seedling of the year: this, however, is not awarded if, in the opinion of the committee, no dahlia is worthy. These honours are much sought after, as they are the hall-mark of a great dahlia, one which can be bought and sold with confidence.

Cinnamon bark oil

Harvesting does not usually take place until the trees are at least 10 or 12 years old, unless economic necessity compels the cultivator to harvest them at 4 or 5 years, when the bark will be of inferior quality. They may even be left until they are 20 to 30 years of age, while forest trees may be 40 or 50 years old when they are discovered.

Cassia buds which enter commerce are, as already stated, the dried unripe fruits contained within the calyx cup. They are smooth and greyish-brown or reddish-brown in colour, 6-10 mm long and about 5 mm in diameter at the tip; the calyx is hard and wrinkled. They have a spicy cinnamon-like odour and a warm sweet pungent flavour. They are used in sweet pickles.

Saigon cassia is sometimes considered to be a variety of C. obtusifolium (Roxb.) Nees. It is indigenous to Vietnam. The main commercial source was northern Annam, with Tonkin as a secondary source. It provided the ‘canelle royale’ of the Royal Court of Flue. Saigon cassia, or Annamese cinnamon as it is sometimes called, is highly valued in China, both as a spice and a drug, the bark from the trunks of old wild trees being particularly well regarded. Originally, only wild trees were exploited and were propagated by birds. As the more accessible parts of the forests became depleted, cultivation of the tree increased.

The tree grows on a variety of soils, the best areas being well-drained sides of valleys, where lateritic soils of old volcanic origin run down to alluvial soils in the valley bottoms. The rainfall of these areas is high, reaching 2 500-3000 mm per annum, and this is said to be essential for the production of good-quality bark. Saigon cassia is also grown in the plains, both in plantations and in gardens mixed with other crops, such as bananas, areca nuts and jack-fruit.

Cassia oil of commerce is produced in China. It contains cinnamaldehyde as its major constituent and is used for similar purposes to cinnamon bark oil in perfumery and flavouring (after rectification) but its applications are rather more limited.

The tree can be propagated by cuttings or layers, but these methods are seldom used, although suckers are sometimes transplanted. The tree is usually raised from seed, which should be obtained from selected trees. The fruits are soaked in water, after which the pericarp is rubbed off and the seeds are dried in the shade. They should be planted within a few days, as the seeds quickly lose their viability. The seeds are planted in prepared nurseries, preferably of fine sandy soil, and are shaded and watered. The shade is gradually reduced until the seedlings are about 1 m high at 1 year old, when they are ready for transplanting into their permanent positions. The seedlings should be lifted carefully to avoid damage to the roots and the planting distance varies from 0.9 to 4.5 m, depending upon the soil and other crops. The trees are given an occasional ring-weeding and the lower branches are cut off close to the trunk.

Chinese Cinnamon Cassia

Compound quills, measuring 42 ins. long (just over 1 m), are sorted into grades according to the thickness of the hark. Three main qualities are exported: the ‘Tine’ or ‘Continental’ grades, the intermediate `Mexican’ grades, and the ‘Hamburg’ grades.

Within each category, there is a further classification according to the thickness of the quills. Ceylon cinnamon quills imported into the United Kingdom are mainly used industrially in the manufacture of a wide variety of processed foods or for the production of cinnamon bark oil or cinnamon oleoresin. A small quantity is either cut up into pieces about 15 cm or ground into a fine powder or mixed with other spices by spice merchants or millers for the retail pharmaceutical and grocery trades.

Kwantung cassia has an oil content of at least 1.7 ml per 100 g, and Kwangsi 3.4 to 4.0 ml per 100 g, according to information provided in 1974 by the Native Product Corporation, Peking (via the British Embassy). This contrasts with Landes (1951), who reported that best quality Kwangsi cassia contained 2 to 2.75 per cent volatile oil and Kwantung 1.0 to 1.2 per cent.

The names Honan or Yunnan cassia, which were formerly used to describe the finest qualities of Kwangsi cassia, are now no longer used, and the Chinese sell Kwangsi and Kwantung cassias under the brand names Tung Sing and Si Chang respectively.

The harvesting and preparation of cinnamon in Sri Lanka is generally undertaken for a farmer by contract peelers, usually a group of two families. Sufficient material is cut for a day’s peeling, the working day being from about 6 a.m. to 7 p.m. Stems, measuring 1.2-5.0 cm in diameter, are cut early in the morning and the twigs and leaves are detached; the last may be retained for distillation purposes. The cut stems are then bundled and are transported by bullock cart to the peeling shed.

According to Landes (1951), Saigon cassia was produced in the district of Binh Dinh and in the regions of the Tchamy and Tchampong mountains, and exported from Saigon in four grades based upon the thickness of the bark, namely: (1) Thin bark, usually A-. in. (0.8 mm), but thin bark from the Tchamy region was usually paper-thin; (2) Medium bark, usually s to It in. (1.6 to 3.2 mm) thick; (3) Thick bark, usually over 18- in. (3.2 mm) thick; (4) Broken bark – all the Saigon cassias were usually very tightly curled in several layers and, in the process of eliminating the dirt, the bark was broken; added to it were the pieces cut off the rolls (quills) when they were being bundled.

Henbane

The Snowdrop is an example of the way in which living organisms generate internal heat. This is one of the plants which, like the Broad Hellebore, may be found growing in clumps in small, clear hollows in the snow. It is the warmth generated by the plants which thaws the surrounding snow.

It contains a number of toxic substances – chiefly the alkaloids hyoscyamine, scopolamine and atropine – which stimulate the nervous system, in particular the brain. The plant is characterized by its smell and is avoided by farm animals; thus Henbane poisoning in livestock is fairly rare.

Not so with humans, however, where the effects of Henbane poisoning can be bizarre: in the old days children who had eaten the plant were thought to have been possessed by evil spirits.

Henbane, a robust plant up to 80 cm high, is an annual or more often biennial herb, forming only a ground rosette of leaves the first year. The ornamental flowers (1) grow from the axils of the upper stem leaves. The fruit of Henbane is a capsule enclosed in a calyx with joined sepals and with a lid that bursts open when ripe. Inside are thousands of tiny seeds which are hard to distinguish from poppy seeds with the naked eye. Only on magnification do Henbane seeds show up as brownish, kidney-shaped, and pitted. They are light and fall out readily in a breeze.

Henbane is a plant of barren places, abandoned fields, waste ground, and roadsides and a weed of field crops, particularly in warmer regions. It is a frequent and unwelcome intruder, for instance, in poppy fields.

It dislikes cold (which is probably why it does not flowers until late summer) and is rarely seen in the foothills. Henbane is distributed in Europe, Asia, North America, and Australia.

Yellow-rattle

Yellow-rattle, like the pernicious field weed Red Bartsia, obtains its nourishment by semi-parasitic means. The young germinating plant is particularly energetic in its efforts to find a host, sometimes even attaching itself to the roots of another sprouting plant of its own kind.

Once it finds a host – more usually a cereal grass – it absorbs mineral substances from this source. Organic substances it obtains for itself by photosynthesis in the leaves, just like other green plants. The calyx of the Yellow-rattle increases in size as the plant grows. By the time the seeds are ripe it is almost spherical and strikingly inflated. The ripe seeds drop out from open fruits into the swollen calyx as it dries and when the wind blows a mass of these plants makes an audible rattling sound, which is what gives the plant its name.

Field Fennel also features in the language of flowers: the sending of a bunch of these flowers to a lover symbolizes rejection of love. Or, where this plant is known as St Catherine’s Flower, it is because the structure of the flower and bracts resembles the wheel on which prisoners, such as St Catherine, were tortured.

Black Nightshade is found practically throughout the world, in fields (particularly in root crops), field compost heaps, and waste places , although it once grew only in southern Europe. It tolerates long periods of drought, is generally restricted to warmer regions, but is occasionally seen in mountains, and will survive the first mild frosts of autumn.

Black Nightshade is an annual herb multiplying by means of seeds – as many as 40,000 to a plant. The seeds germinate the year after ripening but not until the onset of summer weather, when the ground is warmed through. The plant grows to a height of 20-50 cm. The stem is angular, erect, and broadly branched.

However, this species of Rhinanthus does not occur in Britain. This is a plant 10-50 cm high which prefers a moist situation, particularly in spring. As it requires a great deal of light it is suppressed by a tall stand of grain.

Growing Dahlias

As with the thinning out, the degree of disbudding must vary a great deal, consideration being given to the classification of the particular variety, its potential size in the group and to the specific purpose for which it is grown.

Pre-supposing that the plants are destined to produce blooms of exhibition quality, on the giant varieties all side shoots should be removed, except two which should be retained low down on each branch to act as replacements when the bloom is cut. Disbudding should be done gradually over a period as there is a tendency, if too many side shoots are removed at any one time, for the buds to be misshapen, or in extreme cases completely blind, due to the sudden concentration of sap flow into the one bud.

If possible the whole plot should be covered several inches deep. It may not be possible to do this if only compost or manure is used, but a bale or two of straw or bracken can be used to eke out the more valuable material to give the required depth.

The advantage of disbudding is clear. For garden decoration, or as cut flowers for the house, the blooms, although somewhat reduced in numbers, will look more effective and be of better formation on longer stems, holding themselves well above the foliage to receive the admiration which is their rightful due. For the exhibitor it is an essential part of his or her routine culture.

This lack is quickly made up on the death of the bacteria, when the nitrogen they have absorbed is once again made available, and ultimately the balance is restored, in fact enhanced.

There is also a difference in the respective times at which the blooms appear, according to whether the central or side buds are used. The central bud will open earlier than the side buds, and even these will vary slightly from each other. Of the two sick buds one is usually held on a bare peduncle arising directly from the terminal pair of leaves on the main stem, whilst the other has an additional pair of leaves. For comparative purposes it can be assumed that the side bud without leaves will reach maturity three to four days later than the central bud, whilst the bud with an additional pair of leaves will bloom three to four days later still. The value of this variation can easily be seen. By careful selection of buds one is almost certain of producing a bloom by a specific date.

Speedwells

Coltsfoot is both an important medicinal plant and a weed of loamy and clay soils, found growing in ditches alongside field paths and in freshly dug excavations.

Although difficult to eradicate it is a welcome plant in that it is one of the earliest to flower in spring. What makes eradication of Coltsfoot difficult is its extensive root system. The rhizomes, the foodstore of the plant, spread horizontally below the surface of the soil at depths ranging from 20-250 cm, with the greatest concentration found 1 m down. From this, shoots rise to form new rooting plants on the surface, and in autumn, several flower buds form below the surface, close under the leaves, in readiness for the following spring.

The flowerheads and leaves are collected and dried for the drug market. They contain viscous juices, essential oils, insulin, bitter principles, and other substances. The drug obtained is an expectorant and is used in the treatment of coughs. Preparations from Coltsfoot also assist in the healing of wounds, and when the fresh leaves are applied as a compress, they reduce the pain of rheumatism and gout.

The stems of Wall Speedwell are covered with leaves that decrease in size from the ground upwards. The flowers form a terminal raceme; the flower stalks are erect or slanting outwards at an angle and the stems are covered with short downy hair. The stem leaves of the other two species are constant in size. Their flowers are borne singly in the axils of the leaves and the stalks curve downwards after the flowers fade.

Ivy Speedwell has leaves which are heart- to kidney-shaped, with several lobes resembling the leaves of ivy, whereas Buxbaum’s Speedwell has ovate leaves with a slightly heart-shaped base and a finely-toothed margin.

These are arranged in a ground rosette, with an effect as of white felt on the underside. This is due to hair-like outgrowths, composed of one row of cells, the last of which is several times longer than the rest and often curled in a spiral round the base of the hair.

Red Dead-nettle

Dead-nettle or Urtica mortua (the name by which it was often known in mediaeval Latin) is a hardy plant. The temperature only has to rise slightly above freezing and it comes to life. It is one of the overwintering weeds of field and fallow land, though it also grows in large numbers in gardens, waste places, and along field paths.

It is exceptionally resistant to low temperatures so that on warm winter days it is not unusual to find it flowering even in a furrow partly covered with snow. In thick stands, where it is crowded by other growths such as field crops, the Field Pansy is erect with few branching stems; populations growing after the harvest, when the competition is less, are richly branched and form large clumps.

Some authorities consider the Wild Pansy or Heartsease (V tricolor) and the Field Pansy two races of the same species. Both were once used as home remedies and the Wild Pansy in particular became the subject of many folk legends. Its corolla, the whorl of leaves forming the inner envelope of the flowers, was the symbol of the Holy Trinity. Later the Wild Pansy came to symbolize faithfulness.

Although originally native only to Europe, North Africa, and temperate regions of Asia, Groundsel has been introduced to South Africa, North America, and Australia. Today, this short-lived little flower has a cosmopolitan distribution and is found in both lowland and mountain areas.

It is for this reason (plus its resistence to low temperatures) that Red Dead-nettle wins out over the winter grain in any field where it takes up residence.

The flowering period is from April to October. Shortly after the flowers have faded they are followed by splitting capsules containing tiny seeds.

Mulching Dahlias

It is also an advantage to apply a deep mulch to the ground, if the material is available. A great many growers do not incorporate any manure in the ground at digging, preferring to reserve all.

Cow manure is excellent. It is probably best to mix a certain amount of straw with this as it is rather heavy and cold, and might on these accounts be slightly deleterious on a heavy clay soil in a wet, cold summer if applied unmixed. Compost is also good, preferably reasonably well broken down before application.

Chicken and rabbit manure, although rather dangerous stuff to use because of its comparatively high ammonia content, if well mixed with straw and composted down for a time makes an excellent mulch, but in this case it is probably best to apply an additional layer of straw on top of the manure as it is seldom possible to obtain sufficient to make a really deep mulch.

Whatever animal manure is used it should be at least partially decomposed, that is it should be stacked for a short while before using, if possible, to take away the fierceness. Many growers do use manure straight from the stable and yard as a mulch and get good results, but it cannot be recommended as a safe or ideal practice. Failing any of the above, spent hops, bracken, shoddy, bark fibre, sewerage sludge, in fact almost any organic material, may be used.

Straw makes an extremely good substitute. It is cheap, clean and very springy, and it is most effective in preventing the ground compacting under pressure. It is an excellent practice to put an additional layer of loose straw along the pathways for this one reason.

Also, particularly when good manure or compost is used, the feeder roots will obtain a certain amount of nourishment from the mineral salts made available in the material by soil bacteria, or by leaching when rain falls or water is given. And, quite as important, the springy nature of the mulch will partially prevent the ground from becoming hard under constant treading when carrying out routine cultivation.

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